Comparative Philosophy of Ancient Ages

Since ancient times, people have formed communities and started to live together. With the emergence of states, "Political Philosophy" came to light and many philosophers chose the state as their subject. The answer these philosophers want to find converges in one question: what is the best method?

At the end of the 6th century BC, a golden age begins in Greece that will last for 200 years. It is seen that literature, architecture, science and above all philosophy, which will deeply affect the development of the West, have developed. At the beginning of the period, the people of the city-state of Athens overthrow the tyranny and establish a kind of democracy. This political environment contains the free spirit that will enable the leading philosophers of the time to grow. After the execution of his teacher, Socrates, by the notables of Athens, Plato was not very sympathetic to democracy. However, it cannot be said that he does not like the other forms of state (basically 3: democracy, plutocracy and militarist state) that he drags the state into evil and wrong. Plato believes that the purpose of the state is to promote basic virtues and enable its citizens to lead a good life. A good ruler should lead society to be virtuous and live well. In his view, there is not yet a political system in the world that will fully realize this goal. He describes the existing ones as bad and unvirtuous. The reason for this is that they look after their own interests, not the interests of the state. As everyone tends to gain power, the stability and unity of the state deteriorates. But Plato also says that there are people who know the meaning of the virtuous life: philosophers. Only philosophers don't get hung up on values ​​like money and office, and they don't have a passion for political power. And they can look behind them and see the truth rather than the shadows on the cave walls. According to Plato, philosophers are the only suitable candidates for the administration of the state in accordance with its purpose and with virtue. Plato accepts this as a utopian point of view and suggests educating the potential ruling class as a more practical solution. However, not every citizen has the ability to comprehend this education. Those chosen for power by their natural talents must be cut off from their families so that their allegiance belongs only to the state. Towards the end of the 6th century BC, China came to an end of a period of peace known as the Spring and Autumn period, when philosophers emerged. The notables of the state, under the influence of moral philosophy, concentrate on morally correct ways to regulate the internal affairs of the state. However, as the stability of the state deteriorated towards the end of the period, military advisers came to the fore and militaristic thoughts also affected the political life. It is in this setting that Sun Tzu's detailed explanations of the art of war appear. In these statements, there is a hierarchical structure in which a ruler, like generals, takes advice from the senior military class, but also gives orders and rules them. For Sun Tzu, the role of the ruler is to exercise moral leadership. Citizens must believe that they have a reason to support the state before they support it, and a ruler must provide it by exemplary behavior. Sun Tzu also recommends strict enforcement of discipline and severe penalties for disobedience. But this must end with balancing punishment and reward. Advising the Sovereign, the General must know when to fight or not, and before the battle he must try to defeat the enemy by deceiving and foiling his plan. He also opposes the destruction of the enemy in war because it reduces the loot and eliminates the possibility of gaining an opportunity by gaining the sympathy of the defeated soldiers. If their views on state administration are compared, both Sun Tzu and Plato argue that the ruler should be a moral example to the society and give them opportunities to live virtuously. Although Plato comes to mind when virtue is mentioned, Sun Tzu also refers to virtue considerably, saying that war and its management should be determined by moral rules. On the other hand, Plato argues that states like Sun Tzu (moral ruler, moral citizen understanding) argue that states shape their individuals, and that in states that adopt the militarist order, citizens' passion for glory, honor and victory overshadows other values. Sun Tzu, on the other hand, sees war as a tool because it punishes those who threaten or harm the state. Sun Tzu differs from his predecessors because while previous philosophers focused on civil society, Sun Tzu focuses on international politics and explains the importance of military intelligence. They agree with Plato about not being against the hierarchy, and both philosophers argue that there should be a competent ruler at the top.

The Roman Republic was founded in 500 BC, similar to the Greek polis. The Roman Republic, which has existed for a long time, bears the traces of 3 different forms of government: monarchy (consul), aristocracy (Senate) and democracy (people's assembly). This regime, which was defended by the Roman people to prevent despotism, formed the basis of Cicero's views. Especially in the period when Caesar was given dictatorial powers, Cicero defended this administrative system to the end. Stoic philosophy is the basis of the understanding of law. According to him, law is not the work of human will. It argues that citizens should know that personal interests and public interests are one. He attributes the emergence of social life to people being naturally social. He believes that a mixed constitution will bounce like a ball without separation of powers. He says that the masses will create tyranny and that the excesses of freedom will corrupt democracy. Only with necessary obedience and sufficient but not excessive freedoms can social order be achieved. Cicero's stoic ideas are similar to Plato's natural state. Both philosophers say that communities are formed naturally because human beings are social creatures. He also agrees with Sun Tzu and Plato on the individual's commitment to the state: the interests of the state and individual interests are one. Although the disciplinary system resembles Sun Tzu's strict understanding, it cannot be said that they are exactly similar. Cicero speaks of obedience to a good and powerful ruler rather than a balance of harsh punishments and rewards. He also classifies political regimes according to those who rule, like Plato. Also, like Sun Tzu, he doesn't like war, he is a legal man. Although he defends the republic and democracy, he talks about the tyranny of pluralism and says that there is a need for an authority because the people are uneducated and inclined to abuse, as Plato advocated.

When Christianity was accepted as the official religion of the Roman Empire, the power and influence of the church increased. As a Roman, St. Augustine believed that a state should be governed by laws. He says that the purpose of the state is to ensure that its people live a good and virtuous life, and he thinks that the way to do this is to obey the divine laws of the church. But Augustine also realizes that few people live according to God's commandments. It defines two kinds of states: Civitas Dei (city of God) and Civitas Terra (city of earth). Sinners live in the city of the earth and see the drafting of the constitution according to God's commandments as the only way to live in Civitas Dei. Augustine believed that even in a sinful state, state authority could maintain order by law. According to St. Augustine, man is a creature that God creates in a balanced way and can reach happiness as long as he submits to God. But man has forgotten his place in the hierarchy of existence because of his free will. That's why it was sent to the world. The only cause of evil in the world is that man does not know his place and does not submit to God. For this reason, all the orders that man establishes in the world become the center of evil if he does not submit to God. st. Augustine agrees with Plato and Sun Tzu on the role of the ruler. The ruler must be exemplary and moral so that the society will resemble the Sovereign. Unlike other philosophers, he says that laws must be made by God's commandments, not by man's hand, because God is perfect and his laws are perfect. The only thing that can restore man to his former place is God's laws. Cicero referred to the old gods, while Augustine puts the God of Christianity at the head of society. Just like Plato, Augustine argues that no state order is good (except for the part of God's laws), and since he thinks that the rulers should not be drowned in their own interests, he says that the laws should be made by a superhuman being. However, unlike others, he believes that the basis of the interests of society and people is not worldly benefits, but only divine peace and balance gained by turning to God. In the city of the earth, people are only imperfect, and the solution to this is not man himself, as other philosophers argue, but another superior power.

Under the influence of Buddhism and the deep philosophy of our Confucianism, Shotoku resorts to a system never seen before when he ruled Ancient Japan, dividing vassals according to the color of their hats: the 12-level "cap rank". Vassals are placed under this system according to their abilities and experience. This system helped to put merit into practice. The Emperor's power and authority, according to him, are just like the laws of nature and must be obeyed without question. He likens the ruler to a heaven and the vassals to the earth. If the emperor rises, the vassals rise. If the world is overdeveloped, heaven falls. Therefore, when the Emperor speaks, the vassal must listen, and when he commands, he must be obeyed. Nevertheless, they also depend on some ethical considerations to rule (believing that sovereignty is derived from God or gods). The constitution he created unites the different classes of the people, both in terms of morality and harmony, which he attaches great importance to. The Prince's goal is a state united in harmony, based on merit and ethics, and with a people loyal to the Emperor. He draws attention to the reward-punishment relationship because, according to the Prince, they are the resources that unite the officials and the public and instill enthusiasm in them. According to Sun Tzu and Plato, the ruler who should be at the top is also the highest in the laws of Prince Shoutoku. The prince argues that the rulership is supreme and can only be found in certain people (wise and moral) – just like Plato. However, the difference here is that they advocate the acceptance of the orders given by the Emperor without question because they believe that he is divine. This belief St. It is analogous to Augustine's acceptance of God's laws as unquestionable and perfect. Yes, not everyone can be a ruler because to the Prince, the rulership is divine. The reward-punishment distinction and unconditional obedience are similar to Sun Tzu. However, the Emperor does not seek advice from a general. It is perfect and unquestionable because it is already divine. As with other philosophers, Prince argues that the monarch should serve the interests of society, not individual interests. If society and the ruling class are not in order, the ruling class may begin to look after its own interests. Just as Cicero said that too much freedom is bad, according to the Prince, the disobedience of society will lead to the fall of the Emperor and the state. Unlike all philosophers, Prince argues that society can be forced to work because if they do not work, the state cannot exist.

With the emergence of the state, humanity experienced some difficulties over issues such as private property and tyranny, and the notables tried to find solutions to these problems. Wherever people exist, community will continue to exist, and wherever there is community, the state and rules will continue to exist. Some values ​​that people have because of their existence support a more socialist approach rather than an individual. In general, philosophers were interested in the general benefit of the society, and some of them went deep and commented on the rights and freedoms of people. Monarchy, aristocracy, democracy… Taking their power from God or the people… It seems that philosophers who lived in different periods, in different civilizations and even on different continents can draw similar conclusions. Although definite conclusions cannot be reached about the ideal state order, it is clear that each philosopher influenced the next.

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