China in Kublai Khan Period

Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, has always been interested in China. Kublai Khan, who achieved his goals with the end of the Song Dynasty after he became the ruler, also made attempts on Korea and Japan by following the footsteps of Genghis Khan in order to expand his lands. However, when the high Chinese population and strict customs began to dissolve, he faced the risk of damaging the Mongolian culture, and as a result, an uprising that would lead to his murder broke out.

The Mongols lived in the north of the Gobi Desert. After defeating other Mongolian tribes and uniting Mongolia, Timuçin established the Mongol Empire and declared himself Genghis Khan. The Mongolian Empire, which had expanded so much, was soon divided into several independent khanates. Möngke, who came to power after the death of Genghis Khan, entrusted the conquest and power of China to his younger brother Kublai. And Kublai Khan, also known as the Wise Khan, captured all of China by making Beijing the center and almost ended the Song Dynasty, but upon Möngke's death, he returned to Karakorum to become the new Khan. After Kublai took control of China, due to Kublai's increasing Chinese loyalty and assimilation of Chinese culture, discussions arose in the Congress over Kublai's khanate, and these debates evolved into a war of sovereignty that Kublai won. And after becoming Han, he proved his militaristic strength and intelligence by ending the Song Dynasty. Kublai, who became the Sino-Mongolian Emperor, strengthened his ties with China and began to include the Chinese in the government. This movement, which drew the reaction of the Mongol dignitaries, divided the Mongols as Kublai supporters and Chagatay supporters. Capturing Korea as well, Kublai allowed a Korean Dynasty to exist under the Great Khan. When the Japanese, who were trading with Korea, became a target of Kublai Khan, a path was entered that would result in Kublai's defeat. The north of the Yuan Dynasty was devastated by protracted wars. Kublai, known as Emperor Shizu, implemented policies that encouraged agriculture and rehabilitated the Yellow River. China was the most developed country in the world during the Tang, Song and Yuan dynasties, and therefore China was of great interest to its neighbors. At that time, various countries of the world were sending ambassadors to China frequently and many foreign merchants were flocking to China. Unprecedented vitality was also seen in China's contacts with foreign countries. These contacts culminated in the Yuan dynasty. Close contacts were established between the Yuan dynasty and Japan and Southeast Asian countries; large numbers of Chinese ships were navigating the seas between China and India. The three great inventions of China, printing, gunpowder and the compass, were introduced to Europe through the Arabian peninsula during the Yuan dynasty, and the religion of Islam was introduced to China with the Arabs' knowledge of astronomy, medicine and mathematics. Chinese porcelain sent to East Africa was delivered to Morocco. Marco Polo, who went to China in 1275 with his father, a Venetian businessman, lived in China for 17 years. Marco Polo's book "The Travelogue" has been an important source for Westerners to get to know China and Asia for centuries. Kublai Khan and his army had already begun to adopt Chinese traditions. Kublai Khan, who also aimed to serve China, was a Mongolian and warrior after all. He was described by the Chinese as an educated and powerful barbarian. The intolerable exploitation and oppression of the Chinese by the Mongol administration led to uprisings. The uprisings started in a short time spread all over the country. Under Zhu Yuanzhang's leadership, the idea of ​​"reestablishing China by expelling the Mongols" found widespread support. Zhu Yuanzhang, together with his army, founded the Ming Dynasty after overthrowing the Yuan Dynasty. Ibn Battuta, one of the notables of the period, mentions about the agricultural abundance of China and the wealth of its trade. They use paper money but people live modestly. According to him, the Chinese are craftsmen, especially good at painting and keeping records. Chinese ceramics also come to the fore. And attention has been drawn to the Chinese's fondness for silver and gold. The Chinese fields are very fertile, and those who do not cultivate the land, do not do their work. With China's advanced and secure trade system, traders can travel easily and safely and stay in inns. The traders stay in the inns of their own nations and entrust all of their goods to the inn owner for protection. According to Ibn Battuta, Kublai Khan loves merchants and ambassadors and welcomes them as official guests. He also drew attention to the inspection system and the postal organization. He also spoke of Buddhism and how the Chinese were attached to the Sovereigns who built the pagodas. People of different religions and races live together in China. The city is divided into six districts and there are governors (emirs) attached to the central authority that govern the cities. Emirs have slaves and concubines. Partially, it can be mentioned that a subordinate-vassal relationship. Emirs recognize the authority of Kublai Khan and distribute justice to the people in his name. He says that the rulers took the name "Kağan", which indirectly indicates similarity to the Turks. One can speak of a Mongol-Chinese dynasty that began to become Chinese. After the king dies, he is put in the grave with his slaves and his horses are impaled. Whereas in China and India the dead are cremated. This could mean the continuation of Mongolian traditions as well. He returned to Karakorum, leaving Beijing (Han-Balık) for a while, with the revolt of the traditionalist Mongols and other partial heirs who wanted to have the throne, on the grounds that he started to become Chinese, and was killed by his uncle's son.

Marco Polo came to China to trade during the reign of Kublai Khan and stayed here. Despite being in a kind of captivity, he defines Kubilay as the greatest leader after Adam and says that he came to this rank with his intelligence. Kublai Khan accelerated the intervention in a rebellion by distributing the army to the provinces, but slowed down the process of gathering the soldiers in case of a war. In insignificant wars and rebellions, Kublai's children or commanders are sent to the head of the army, but in important wars, Kublai leads the army. Marco Polo says that like Ibn Battuta, Kublai came not only to rule but also to serve China. Like Ibn Battuta, he speaks quite often of Kublai's concubines and slaves and his glory. He also agrees with Ibn Battuta about the magnificence and wealth of China. China was the richest country of the time. Trade is enormous and paper money is used. As Ibn Battuta said, every nation stays in its own inn and entrusts its goods to the owner of the inn. Cities are ruled by emirs. The Emirs and the Sovereign's sons recognize Kublai's authority and rule on his behalf. Unlike Ibn Battuta, Marco Polo says that the uprisings were caused by the pressure exerted by the Mongols on the Chinese. Ibn Battuta, on the other hand, talks mostly about throne fights. Like Ibn Battuta, Marco Polo indirectly likens the Mongolian period to the Turks because animal patterns occupy an important place in the Sultan's palace and throne. He also focused on the love of the Chinese and Mongols, like Ibn Battuta, on gold-silver pots. However, unlike him, he also focused on the celebrations in China and the New Year, but they are in common about the size of the celebrations and the abundance of feasts (i.e. Kublai's glorious life). Agriculture, which is very important for China and for Kublai Khan, is reflected in every part of life. He says that the Chinese, like Ibn Battuta, are advanced craftsmen, and draws special attention to the porcelain trade. In addition, Kublai Khan attaches great importance to merit in state administration and military service. There is a convention (toy) just like the Turks. The development in the postal organization and the speed of communication are issues that Marco Polo emphasized. Like Ibn Battuta, he says that Muslims, Buddhists and Jews live together and points to a multi-religious-multiethnic structure. He described Kublai Khan as very helpful and caring about the welfare of his subjects. However, after the collapse of the Song Dynasty, he brought the Tatars to the state administration, which was negatively received by the Chinese and caused uprisings. Contrary to Ibn Battuta, Marco Polo, who touched more on the social life and the personal characteristics of Kublai Khan, explained many social issues such as the Sovereign's punishment system and his opposition to gambling. To summarize, Ibn Battuta interpreted China on broader issues, but in a narrower scope, within the framework of the Muslim culture in which he grew up. He is more interested in the life of Muslims and the general structure of China. Marco Polo, on the other hand, was especially interested in Kublai's personal characteristics, palace life and state structure because he was personally with the Sovereign as a privileged guest. Both travelers agreed on the wealth of China, the development of trade and the fertility of agriculture, and defined China as the most developed country. But why did Marco Polo describe Kublai so sublimely and with admiration, even though he lived a life of partial captivity? CEREN AKTAŞ